Salomo Baal-Shem

Rabbi Levi ben Abraham ben Hayyim was a French scholar born between 1240 and 1250 in Villefranche-de-Conflent, Roussillon, and died near Arles after 1315. He came from a family of scholars and was educated in both religious and secular sciences, becoming involved in the rationalist intellectual currents of his time. Levi was a proponent of studying secular sciences, which put him at odds with the orthodox party in Provence. Despite facing persecution, excommunication, and poverty throughout his life, he continued his literary pursuits.

His significant contributions include two encyclopedic works, "Batte ha-Nefesh weha-Leḥashim" and "Liviat Chen" (also known as "Sefer ha-Kolel"). These works aimed to synthesize knowledge across various disciplines, including ethics, logic, cosmology, psychology, prophecy, and metaphysics. Levi's rationalistic interpretations of scripture, where he symbolized biblical figures and events with philosophical concepts, drew strong criticism from prominent orthodox figures like Shlomo ibn Aderet. He also wrote treatises on astronomy, astrology, and Jewish mysticism, though some are now lost or incorporated into his larger works.

Levi ben Abraham was a prominent figure in the intellectual landscape of 13th and 14th-century Provence, actively championing the study of secular sciences. He was drawn to the rationalist philosophies of his era, integrating them into his understanding of religious texts. His approach involved reinterpreting biblical narratives and figures through a philosophical lens, seeing Abraham and Sarah, for instance, as symbols of "matter" and "intellect." This rationalist methodology extended to his interpretation of miracles and prophecy, which he approached with skepticism regarding supernatural occurrences and literal interpretations. His teachings, while not entirely original, were presented in a manner that challenged conventional religious understanding, leading to significant opposition from orthodox elements of the Jewish community.

Levi ben Abraham authored two major encyclopedic works: "Batte ha-Nefesh weha-Leḥashim" and "Liviat Chen" (or "Sefer ha-Kolel"). These monumental texts encompassed a wide range of knowledge, reflecting the intellectual breadth of a rationalist Provençal Jew of his time. "Batte ha-Nefesh weha-Leḥashim," completed in 1276, was a didactic compendium covering ten chapters on various sciences, including ethics, logic, cosmology, psychology, prophecy, and metaphysics, often following Maimonides' conclusions. "Liviat Chen," written before the major controversies, was also a comprehensive book divided into treatises on logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, astrology, physics, psychology, metaphysics, theology, and the mysteries of the Law. Both works demonstrate his systematic approach to knowledge and his tendency to find philosophical underpinnings in religious traditions.

Levi's embrace of secular sciences and his rationalist interpretations of religious texts led to considerable conflict with the orthodox rabbinate. He faced strong opposition, notably from Shlomo ibn Aderet, a leading figure of the orthodox party, who denounced Levi as an "arch-heretic." The controversy intensified due to Levi's symbolic readings of scripture and his questioning of literal divine intervention. Despite his efforts to clarify his positions and his observance of religious law, he was excommunicated. Poverty also plagued him, forcing him to teach and lecture to earn a living, which inadvertently spread his views further. His life was marked by a struggle against these forces, finding temporary respite only in his later years.