Hermann Oldenberg, F. Max Müller

Buddhism, originating in ancient India around the 5th century BCE, is a religion and philosophy based on the teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha. It is a major world religion with hundreds of millions of followers, significantly influencing Asian culture and spirituality. The core of Buddhist teachings revolves around understanding and overcoming 'dukkha' (suffering, unease, unsatisfactoriness) through a path that leads to awakening and liberation, often described as the 'Middle Way' between extremes. This path involves practices such as meditation and ethical precepts, rooted in principles like non-harming. Key doctrines include the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, dependent origination, karma, and the three marks of existence.

Buddhism encompasses a vast array of philosophical traditions and textual collections. Scholars generally recognize two major branches: Theravāda, which focuses on individual liberation and the attainment of nirvana, and Mahāyāna, which emphasizes the Bodhisattva ideal of working for the liberation of all sentient beings. A third tradition, Vajrayāna, incorporates esoteric tantric techniques and is sometimes viewed as a distinct branch or within Mahāyāna. These traditions vary in their interpretations of liberation paths and the canonicity of texts, leading to diverse practices across Asia and, more recently, the West.

The historical figure of the Buddha, believed to have lived in the 5th century BCE, is central to Buddhism. While details of his life are debated and may be embellished in later texts, tradition holds that he was motivated by the pervasive suffering (dukkha) of existence. After studying with meditation masters and practicing severe asceticism, he attained 'Awakening' (Bodhi) through dhyana meditation in Bodh Gaya. This awakening led to insights into karma, past lives, and the cessation of mental defilements and suffering. He then taught the Dharma, a path to liberation from the cycle of rebirth (samsara) and suffering, which he characterized as a Middle Way. His teachings were organized into schools and textual canons, evolving into major traditions like Theravāda, Mahāyāna, and Vajrayāna.

Buddhism's worldview is articulated through fundamental concepts aimed at understanding and transcending the unsatisfactory nature of existence. The Four Noble Truths form the bedrock, identifying dukkha as an inherent characteristic of conditioned phenomena due to craving and attachment (tanhā). The path to liberation, the Noble Eightfold Path, offers a method to end this craving and achieve nirvana, the 'blowing out' of passions and the cessation of suffering. This path is seen as a Middle Way, avoiding both extreme asceticism and indulgence. Other crucial doctrines include dependent origination, explaining the interconnectedness of phenomena, and karma, the principle of cause and effect governing actions and their consequences.

The diverse traditions within Buddhism interpret the path to liberation and the importance of various texts differently. Theravāda, the 'School of the Elders,' emphasizes individual attainment of nirvana and escaping the cycle of rebirth. Mahāyāna, the 'Great Vehicle,' promotes the Bodhisattva ideal, where practitioners strive for the enlightenment of all beings. Vajrayāna, the 'Indestructible Vehicle,' incorporates tantric practices and esoteric techniques, often viewed as a component of Mahāyāna. These traditions have developed distinct canons and practices, influencing the cultural and spiritual landscape of Asia and spreading to the West. Common practices include meditation, ethical conduct, and adherence to monastic vows.