Cumont, Franz

Mithraism, also known as the Mithraic mysteries, was a Roman religion focused on the deity Mithras. While inspired by Iranian worship of Mithra, the Roman version developed unique imagery and practices. It was particularly popular among soldiers in the Roman army from the 1st to the 4th century AD. Followers underwent a complex system of seven initiation grades and participated in communal ritual meals. They met in underground temples called mithraea. The religion was widespread across the western Roman Empire and was considered a rival to early Christianity, eventually being suppressed by the end of the 4th century.

Knowledge of Mithraism largely comes from archaeological findings, including meeting places, monuments, and artifacts, as written narratives are scarce. Key iconographic elements include Mithras being born from a rock, a bull-slaying scene (tauroctony), and a banquet with the sun god Sol. The exact relationship between Roman Mithras and the older Iranian divinity, as well as the precise meaning of its iconography, remains a subject of scholarly debate.

The mysteries of Mithras involved a structured system of seven levels of initiation, with participants identifying themselves as "syndexioi," meaning "united by the handshake." Communal ritual meals were a significant part of their practice. Worshippers convened in dedicated underground temples known as mithraea, often referred to as caves. These sites, along with numerous artifacts, provide the primary evidence for understanding the cult's practices. The cult's center appears to have been in Rome, with its influence extending throughout the western Roman Empire, reaching as far south as Roman Africa and Numidia, east to Roman Dacia, north to Roman Britain, and to a lesser extent in Roman Syria.

Much of what is understood about Mithraism comes from its distinctive iconography, as written theological texts are largely absent. The most prominent image is the tauroctony, depicting Mithras slaying a bull, which was always centrally placed in mithraea. Other significant scenes include Mithras being born from a rock and sharing a banquet with the sun god Sol. The tauroctony scene is rich in detail, often featuring figures like a dog, snake, scorpion, raven, and wheat ears, alongside torchbearers Cautes and Cautopates. These scenes were sometimes framed by zodiacal symbols and depictions of Sol and Luna. Subsidiary scenes illustrating events such as the water miracle, bull hunt, and ascension to heaven also appear in some contexts.

The name 'Mithraism' is a modern term; ancient writers referred to it as the "Mithraic mysteries" or "mysteries of the Persians." The Roman god Mithras is linked to the ancient Iranian divinity Mithra, though the extent of continuity between Persian and Roman practices is debated. Scholars like Franz Cumont recognized this etymological connection. While some scholars, like John R. Hinnells, view Mithra as a single, evolving deity across different religions, others, such as David Ulansey, propose that the Roman bull-slaying Mithras was a distinct entity originating in the 1st century BCE. The interpretation of the bull-slaying iconography, in particular, remains a complex and contested area among researchers.