Angelika Lohwasser

Makuria was a significant medieval Nubian kingdom located in present-day northern Sudan and southern Egypt, emerging after the collapse of the Kingdom of Kush around the 4th century. Its capital was Dongola, and it converted to Christianity in the mid-6th century. The kingdom expanded by annexing its northern neighbor, Nobatia, in the early 7th century, and maintained diplomatic relations, including a long-standing treaty known as the Baqt, with invading Arab forces starting in 651.

Makuria experienced a cultural peak between the 9th and 11th centuries, marked by impressive architectural projects and artistic achievements in wall paintings and pottery. The Nubian language was prevalent, alongside Coptic, Greek, and Arabic. The kingdom faced decline from the 13th century onwards due to factors like Mamluk aggression, internal strife, incursions, and possibly plague and shifting trade routes. It eventually fragmented, with its territories absorbed by other powers by the 16th century.

Emerging from the disintegration of the Kingdom of Kush in the 4th century, Makuria established itself in the Nile Valley. Its capital, Dongola, was founded around 500 AD, and the kingdom adopted Christianity in the mid-6th century. Initially, Makuria had a distinct culture, absorbing Nubian peoples who had settled in the area. Relations with the Byzantine Empire were significant, with Makuria embracing Chalcedonian Christianity, contrasting with its northern neighbor Nobatia and southern neighbor Alodia. Trade flourished between Makuria and the Byzantine Empire, evidenced by early ecclesiastical architecture in Dongola.

In the early 7th century, Makuria annexed Nobatia, extending its reach northward and creating a new border with Byzantine Egypt. This unification resulted in the establishment of new bishoprics and cathedrals. Following the Arab conquest of Egypt, Makuria faced invasions. A significant event was the Arab invasion of 651/652, which was repelled. This led to the establishment of the Baqt treaty, a pact that endured for over six centuries. The Baqt regulated annual exchanges of goods, including slaves, and ensured the safety of citizens of each realm within the other's territory, effectively recognizing Makuria as an independent state capable of defending itself against the early Islamic expansion.

The period from the 9th to the 11th centuries marked the height of Makuria's cultural development. This era saw the construction of notable buildings such as the Faras Cathedral and the Throne Hall of Dongola, alongside advancements in arts like wall paintings and intricate pottery. While Nubian was the primary written language, Coptic, Greek, and Arabic were also documented. However, from the 13th century, Makuria entered a period of decline. This was attributed to increased aggression from Mamluk Egypt, internal conflicts, Bedouin raids, and potentially the plague and shifts in trade routes. By the 1310s and 1320s, it experienced brief rule by Muslim kings. A civil war in 1365 reduced the kingdom to a smaller state, losing significant southern territories including Dongola, and it eventually vanished by the 1560s.