Benjamin A Elman John B Duncan Herman Ooms

Confucianism, also known as Ruism, is a comprehensive system of thought originating in ancient China, founded by Confucius during the Hundred Schools of Thought era. It encompasses philosophy, ethics, and governance, emphasizing virtue, social harmony, and familial duties. Key virtues like benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and sincerity are central, understood within a worldview where social order reflects sacred moral principles and a transcendent moral order referred to as "Heaven" (tian).

Historically, Confucianism evolved through various dynasties. After being suppressed by the Qin dynasty, it became the dominant ideology under the Han dynasty, later influencing Neo-Confucianism during the Tang and Song dynasties. While state endorsement waned after the abolition of imperial examinations in 1905, Confucianism persisted as a cultural influence, contributing to East Asian economic development and social structures. A modern revival is evident, with renewed interest in Confucian ideals for contemporary social and moral foundations.

At its heart, Confucianism, or Ruism, is a system that promotes self-cultivation and communal effort to achieve virtue. Central to this are the virtues of ren (benevolence), yi (righteousness), li (propriety), zhi (wisdom), and xin (sincerity). These ethical principles are deeply connected to the concept of tian, or "Heaven," which represents a transcendent moral order rather than an omnipotent deity. The worldview fostered by Confucianism posits that human relationships and the structure of society are reflections of these fundamental moral principles. The ultimate aim is the unity of the individual self with "Heaven," achieved through contemplation of this cosmic order, extending this harmony from the individual to the family and society.

Confucius saw himself as a preserver of traditional values from earlier dynasties. Following a period of suppression under the Legalist Qin dynasty, Confucianism rose to prominence during the Han dynasty, becoming the foundational ideology of the state. This period saw a synthesis with Legalist ideas. Later, in response to Buddhism and Taoism, Neo-Confucianism emerged during the Tang dynasty, becoming a cornerstone of the imperial examination system and the scholar-official class of the Song dynasty. The decline of state-sponsored Confucianism began with the end of the imperial examination system in 1905, as reformers associated it with China's historical challenges. Despite this, Confucianism has continued to exert significant cultural influence across East Asia and in diaspora communities, with a notable modern resurgence of interest.

The term "Confucianism" does not have a direct equivalent in Chinese. The closest term is rú (儒), which can mean 'scholar' or 'refined man.' Historically, rú also encompassed meanings related to 'to tame,' 'to mould,' and 'to educate.' Various Chinese terms like Rújiā ('the ru school of thought') and Rújiào ('ru religious doctrine') describe different aspects of the tradition. Some modern scholars prefer "Ruism" over "Confucianism," arguing the latter carries ambiguous traditional associations. The term "Traditionalist" has also been suggested to highlight its connection to inherited standards and forms. It is noted that the character for water is sometimes used as a symbol for Confucianism in the West, a practice not found in modern China.

Confucian thought engages with a cosmology where the universe arises from primordial chaos (hundun and qi) and is organized by the interplay of yin and yang. This concept of continuous creation and ordering is fundamental. Confucianism seeks balance, advocating for "middle ways" between opposing forces like yin and yang in all aspects of life. A key ideal is "sageliness within and kingliness without," which reconciles inner spiritual cultivation with outward engagement in the world. Ren, or humaneness, is considered the essence of humanity, a virtue bestowed by Heaven and the means by which individuals can achieve spiritual unity by recognizing their divine origin and interconnectedness with all things.

“the secular as sacred”