Astarte.

Astarte is the Greek name for the ancient Near Eastern goddess ʿAṯtart, the Semitic equivalent of Ishtar. Her worship spanned from the Bronze Age through antiquity, particularly in the Levant among Canaanites and Phoenicians, and she was also honored in Egypt and introduced to colonies in the Iberian Peninsula. Her name's exact etymology and meaning remain unclear, with scholarly debate surrounding its connection to the deity ʿAṯtar and the vocalization in the Masoretic Text.

Across various cultures, Astarte was linked to war, sexuality, beauty, and healing, though not typically fertility as some early scholarship suggested. Her symbols included the lion, and sometimes the horse, chariot, or dove. While often depicted as a warrior, particularly on horseback or in a chariot, her association with the morning/evening star is debated. She was seen as a counterpart to Mesopotamian Ishtar and Hurrian goddesses. Later, her worship spread to Cyprus, potentially influencing Aphrodite, and eventually to Greece and Rome where she was syncretized with local deities. Major Iron Age centers included Sidon, Tyre, and Byblos, with iconography often featuring her naked, with lions, or winged.

Astarte was associated with a range of domains including war, sexuality, royal power, beauty, and healing. While some earlier scholarship linked her to fertility, current understanding does not strongly support this. Her primary symbol was the lion, and she was also connected with horses and chariots, suggesting a martial aspect. The dove may have also been a symbol, evidenced by Bronze Age seals. Iconographically, she is often depicted as naked, sometimes winged, accompanied by lions, and bearing symbols like the solar disk and crescent moon. She was also linked to the palm tree and lotus flower. In some instances, she was assimilated with other deities, such as Europa riding a bull, or depicted in Egyptian war chariots. Androgynous figurines bearing both female breasts and beards have been suggested as possible representations of Astarte.

The worship of ʿAṯtart originated in the ancient Near East, with early attestations from Ebla and Mari. She was prominent among the Amorites, Canaanites, and Phoenicians, with major cult centers in cities like Ugarit, Sidon, Tyre, and Byblos. Phoenicians introduced her cult to their colonies, including the Iberian Peninsula and islands like Cyprus, Malta, and Sicily. In Egypt, her cult was adopted, particularly during the Ramesside period. Her worship extended to Etruria, where she was honored in a temple alongside the local goddess Uni. In Carthage, she was venerated alongside Tanit. Greeks and Romans frequently equated Astarte with their own deities, such as Aphrodite and Venus, through syncretism. Aspects of Greek gods like Artemis Astrateia are also thought to be influenced by her.

The name ʿAṯtart's etymology is debated, with recent views suggesting a relationship with ʿAṯtar rather than a simple feminine suffix. The vocalization ʿAštōret in the Masoretic Text is also disputed, possibly an intentional alteration. In Ugarit, ʿAṯtartu was described as a beautiful warrior and hunter, often paired with the goddess Anat, but lacked the erotic traits found in later Canaanite forms. By the Iron Age in Phoenicia, Astarte appears to have developed more erotic characteristics, while early attestations of Aphrodite were more warlike, suggesting a complex interplay and evolution of her attributes. Her association with astral phenomena, like the morning and evening star, is questioned, especially in her earlier Ugaritic context.