Astrology, a practice that seeks to understand human affairs and earthly events by examining the positions of celestial bodies, has ancient origins dating back to at least the second millennium BCE. Initially linked to calendrical systems and interpretations of divine communication, it evolved into complex systems in various cultures, including Babylonian, Hindu, Chinese, and Maya civilizations. Western astrology, originating in Mesopotamia, spread through ancient Greece, Rome, and the Islamic world, eventually reaching Europe. For centuries, it was considered a scholarly pursuit, intertwined with fields like astronomy, medicine, and alchemy, and was referenced in significant literary works. However, with the Enlightenment and the rise of the scientific method, astrology lost its academic standing and was increasingly viewed as pseudoscientific, though it has experienced resurgences in popularity, notably since the 1960s.

Throughout much of its history, astrology was regarded as a legitimate scholarly tradition, often practiced alongside astronomy, meteorology, medicine, and alchemy. It held a presence in learned circles and political spheres, appearing in the literature of prominent writers. This acceptance persisted until the Enlightenment, a period that saw the emergence of new scientific concepts and a shift in intellectual paradigms. Consequently, astrology began to lose its status as a scholarly pursuit and its academic and theoretical standing diminished, leading to a general decline in common belief, though periods of resurgence have occurred.

Evidence suggests humans have observed celestial cycles for millennia, initially to track seasonal changes for agricultural purposes, as indicated by ancient markings. By the 3rd millennium BCE, civilizations possessed a sophisticated understanding of celestial cycles. Early astrological references are found in texts like the Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa from Babylon around 1700 BCE. The first dynasty of Babylon (1950–1651 BCE) provides the oldest undisputed evidence of astrology as an integrated knowledge system, incorporating elements later found in Hellenistic astrology. Chinese astrology was developed during the Zhou dynasty and flourished in the Han dynasty, integrating philosophical concepts like Yin-Yang. Ancient Arabs also held fatalistic beliefs tied to celestial phenomena.

From ancient times, astrology faced criticism from philosophical skeptics and later from proponents of scientific inquiry. Ancient Greek philosophers like Carneades and Roman thinkers such as Cicero raised objections, questioning its compatibility with free will and morality, and highlighting inconsistencies in its predictive power. Cicero's critique, in particular, is considered by some modern philosophers to be an early definition of pseudoscience. Objections included the argument that individuals born at similar times can have vastly different life outcomes, and that celestial influences are less significant than environmental or hereditary factors. These criticisms, along with empirical challenges, contributed to astrology's eventual loss of scientific validity.